Friday Reprise: Little Turtle of the Miami

We've already discussed Buckongahelas and I intend to do a more lengthy post on Blue Jacket, but today we're looking more closely at the third member of the Native command team at the Battle of the Wabash.  Michikinikwa (c-1747-1812), was considered to be one of the foremost Native commanders of his day, along with Buckongahelas and Dragging Canoe.  He was born near what is now Whitley County, IN, the most likely place being a village near present-day Chorobusco, IN.  His tribe, the Miamis, had nothing to do with Miami, Florida.  That city was named for another Native tribe in the Southeast, also called the Miamis.  We'll get to Florida's extinct tribes later.  Michikinikwa grew up to be a strong men, well over six feet tall, who disdained alcohol.  Although the most famous portrait of him is the one with no adornment on his head, those who described him said that he loved to wear silver ornamentation, so I've included both images here.

Michikinikwa earned his rank as war chief by defending his people during the Revolutionary War.  In October, 1780 a force of French allied with the Americans and commanded by French adventurer Aguste de la Balme plundered the principal Miami village of Kekionga, near what is now Fort Wayne, IN.  Michikinikwa raided la Balme's camp in retaliation, killing him and several of his men.  He led raids against American settlements in Kentucky, working on behalf of the British.  After the Revolutionary War ended, the Americans began to divide off the land of the Northwest Territories to sell for much needed cash. The Miami banded with the Shawnee, the Lenape/Delaware and several other Indian tribes in what became known as the Western Confederacy to try to enforce the Ohio River as a boundary between White settlement and Native territory.  Michikinikwa soon emerged as a leader of this Confederacy and one of the Native leaders of the Northwest Indian War (1785-1795), which became known at the time as Little Turtle's War. 

As we discussed yesterday, Brig. Gen. Josiah Harmer was the first to feel the weight of the Natives' wrath in two separate defeats.  But the war would get even more personal for Michikinikwa.  In August, 1790, his daughter was captured in a raid by James Wilkinson.  The Natives won a stunning victory at the Battle of the Wabash in November, 1791, the most punishing defeat ever suffered by United States forces at the hands of Natives.  In October, 1792, Michikinikwa planned another raid to mark the Wabash anniversary, which showed the Americans that some of their advance forts in Ohio were indefensible.  But Michikinikwa realized that they'd met their match in General "Mad" Anthony Wayne in 1794, and counseled caution.  He gave up his role in the central command of the Native forces, but still led the Miami contingent at Fallen Timbers, August 20, 1794.  One of the factors inducing him to caution might have been the fact that his White son-in-law, William Wells, whom he'd been genuinely fond of, changed forces and began scouting for the United States.

The ceremonial signing of the treaty of Greenville was tragic in several ways.  Not only was the Natives alliance broken, but Michinikinikwa's wife died the day of the ceremony.  The American forces gave her a military funeral in respect for a powerful enemy.  After the war, Michikinikwa continued to counsel cooperation with the Americans.  He met with George Washington, who presented him with a ceremonial sword.  He also met with Thomas Jefferson and agreed to allow Quaker missionaries onto Miami land to teach the Miami farming.  He suffered a humiliating break with his own people during negotiations with William Henry Harrison, when other Miami leaders refused to sell any more land to the Whites.  Harrison stated that Michikinikwa was no longer considered a Miami.  Michikinikwa retired to a village near what is now Columbus, IN, but in 1809, this village was among those that Harrison ordered destroyed, forcing the old man to uproot again.  He died at the home of his son-in-law, William Wells, in 1812, suffering from gout and rheumatisim.  A statue and a plaque mark his grave.

Natives versus Settlers, Little Turtle's War, 179-1794

We've devoted posts to Little Turtle of the Miami (1747-1812), a renowned war leader of the same caliber as Dragging Canoe, Buckongahelas, Blue Jacket and others whom we've already met.  We've also covered the Northwest Indian War (1785-1794).  Now it's time to drill down on a specific subset of that war known as Little Turtle's War.  That he had an entire portion of the larger war named after him shows just how effective a leader Little Turtle was, particularly at capturing the attention of his enemies.

The Treaty of Paris of 1783 which ended the American Revolutionary War did not deal with any land claims by the original inhabitants of the Ohio River Valley.  It only specified that the British would surrender their forts there and leave, which they had no intention of doing.  Native leaders, particularly White Eyes of the Delaware, conceived of the Ohio Valley as being a Native buffer state, where Natives could live without any encroachment by Settlers.  But it was not to be.  Even before the Revolution ended, Settlers were pouring into Ohio and skirmishes with local Natives were inevitable.  Little Turtle was already a renowned war leader by 1785 and led several war parties against American settlers, often cooperating with Blue Jacket of the Shawnee, with whom he is most closely associated.  By 1790, he would command a share of fame of his own with two ambushes against columns led by Josiah Harmer. 

In 1791, Little Turtle's daughter was captured in a raid led by James Wilkinson.  More on him later, because he was one of the more disreputable men ever to live on the frontier or just about anywhere else.  Little Turtle made getting his daughter back a priority.  He was one of the Native commanders at the Battle of Wabash, on November 4, 1791, when a combined force of Miami, Wyandot, Delaware and others inflicted a defeat on General Arthur St. Clair that was far worse than that suffered by Custer.  For comparison, the loss at Little Big Horn (Greasy Grass) was 268 killed and 46 wounded.  The Battle of the Wabash saw 632 killed/captured, along with 264 wounded.  Civilian casualties were 24 killed, 14 wounded, bringing the total to approximately 933. 

Little Turtle would add to his record with a raid in 1792 on Fort St. Clair, in present-day Preble County, Ohio, that would make American military planners wonder if holding onto the Ohio Valley was even feasible.  The Washington Administration turned to one commander whom George Washington knew from Revolutionary days and believed he could trust, Anthony Wayne.  Like George Rogers Clark before him, Anthony Wayne garnered a reputation among the Natives as a formidable enemy.  On June 30, 1794, Little Turtle's contingent of Miami participated in an attack on Fort Recovery, near the present-day town of Fort Recovery, Ohio.  The fort held out and Little Turtle knew that they faced an enemy of a more skilled caliber than Arthur St. Clair or Josiah Harmer.  Prior to the Battle of Fallen Timbers on August 20, 1794, he counseled caution and that perhaps their best course lay with negotiating with Wayne rather than fighting him.  Nevertheless, when the consensus was to give battle, he led his Miami warriors with his usual skill.  This time, it was not enough.  Wayne inflicted a resounding defeat on the Natives.

Little Turtle was a signatory to the Treaty of Greenville in 1795.  During the gathering for the treaty signing, his wife died and was given a military funeral out of respect for this formidable adversary. 

 

Natives versus Settlers: The Big Bottom Massacre, January 2, 1791

An unfortunate rule of thumb in American history is that instances of Natives resisting trespassers on their hunting range are always called massacres, no matter the wrongs or the rights of the situation.  In the period of the Northwest Indian War (1785-1795), these incidents happened time and time again, with death and tragedy often accruing to both sides.

In the decades following the Revolution, the United States government opened more and more frontier land to settlement, particularly in the Ohio Valley.  Deeds to land companies and individuals were often vague and faulty, with the result that many settlers simply squatted on whatever parcel they happened to claim, hoping the mess would sort itself out eventually.  These individuals or small groups of settlers were the most vulnerable to Native attack.  One such land company, the Ohio Company of Associates, received a large grant of land along the Muskingun River.  The Company's main base was the town of Marietta, but settlers, whether affiliated with the Company or not, began to settle on pieces of land along the river.  In those days, the flood plain of a river was known as a bottom.  A group of 36 settlers had gone further east up the River and settled in one of these flood plains known as Big Bottom.

Their presence attracted the attention of bands of Wyandot and Delaware/Lenape Natives.  The Company leaders hoped to keep on good terms with the Natives and having squatters settle on Native hunting range was not the way to do it.  Word reached Col. William Stacy, whom we've already met at Cherry Valley.  Knowing the Natives would protect their land, in late December, 1790, he strapped on a pair of skates and made his way up the frozen Muskingum to warn his two sons, John and Phillip or Philemon and the other men that they were in harms way.  The settlers at Big Bottom were in process of building a blockhouse to protect the settlement, but it wasn't completed.  On January 2, 1791, a Delaware and Wyandot war party swarmed the partially-constructed blockhouse, killing 9 men, a woman and two children.  John Stacy was killed in the attack.  Phillip and three others were taken prisoner, with Phillip dying days later.  Other Settlers escaped into the woods. 

Attacks such as these convinced the United States government to take more of a hand in the Ohio Valley.  Congress authorized a large portion of land bordering the Ohio Company lands as a Donation Tract, a buffer zone between Native and Settler land claims.  However, squatters soon invaded this area, too.  There was nothing left to do but to expel the Natives permanently from their land, which they were forced to give up in the Treaty of Greenville, 1795. 

Places: Fort Recovery, Ohio

What to do when morale is still at a low ebb following one of the worst defeats of an American army at the hands of Natives?  To Mad Anthony Wayne, the answer was simple.  Build a fort on that very spot and give it an appropriate name, Fort Recovery.

And that's just what he did.  In November, 1791, a force under Little Turtle of the Miami and Blue Jacket of the Shawnee laid a devastating defeat on the forces of General Arthur St. Clair, which saw 933 soldiers and militia either killed, wounded or captured.  President George Washington was furious, and looked around for the right man to put the desire to fight back into a demoralized United States Army.  General Anthony Wayne was a Revolutionary War veteran who wasn't called mad for nothing.  In addition to strict training and discipline to get his men ready for the next battle, Wayne needed a staging area.  He decided to build a new fort on the site of the Battle of the Wabash and named it Fort Recovery. 

In June, 1794, Fort Recovery would weather its first attack.  On June 30, 1794, a supply column left Fort Recovery headed to Fort Greenville.  It was attacked by Blue Jacket's Shawnee, including a young warrior named Tecumseh.  The column returned to Fort Recovery.  That night, a scouting party under William Wells, who we've run across before, found out what the Shawnee had been up to.  British officers had been present with the Natives, though they took no part in the fighting.  They had brought cannon balls and powder but no cannon.  The Natives thought they would be able to salvage St. Clair's cannon, which the Natives had buried after the battle.  Little did they know that Wells, a son-in-law of Little Turtle, had tipped Wayne off to where the buried guns were located.  They were now dug up and safely inside the Fort.  The next day, July 1, 1794, the Shawnee attempted an assault on the Fort itself, but soon gave it up.

Fort Recovery was a reference point in the boundaries established by the Treaty of Greenville, in 1795.  In 1800, when Indiana Territory was separated from Ohio Territory, the Fort was again used as a reference, since it was then directly on the boundary.  However, when Ohio was admitted as a state, the boundary had been adjusted by two miles and the reference point was no longer needed.  This Fort, like others of the area, crumbled into disrepair and was ultimately abandoned.  In 1891, excavation began on the battle sites, recovering the remains of 1200 people.  They were reinterred in a memorial park in the town of Fort Recovery, Ohio.  In 1908, President Taft appropriated money for the building of a monument to those killed at the Wabash and in the attack on Fort Recovery.  An obelisk was erected and dedicated to their memory in 1913.  A reconstruction of the Fort exists today, administered by the Ohio State Historical Society, along with a visitor's center that shows dioramas and explanations of the battles.

Agent: William Wells

Life on the frontier for anyone connected with Natives was never easy.  These people, who were White but often adopted into Native tribes or married to Natives, faced a constant tug-of-war of emotions and loyalties.  William Wells and his relationships with his in-laws, Little Turtle and the Miami, is a classic case in point.

William Wells (c 1770-12), was born in Jacob's Creek, Pennsylvania, the son of a Revolutionary War veteran who later moved his family to Kentucky.  Wells' father died when he was nine and he was taken in by a neighbor.  At the age of 13, Wells and three other boys were captured by a raiding party of Wea and Miami and taken to Indiana.  Wells had bright red hair, earning him the name Apekonit, Miami for carrot.  He was given to a Miami chief, Porcupine, and taught the ways of a Miami warrior, which he readily became.  He eventually married a Wea woman and seemed content to remain with the Natives, though he visited his birth family in 1789.  His wife and daughter were later captured in a raid by General James Wilkinson (more on him in a later post), and Wells remained attached to Little Turtle's band of Miami, serving as a sharpshooter during the Battle of the Wabash, November, 1791. 

At this point, things became a little murky.  In 1792, Wells, still seeking his wife and daughter and other Native hostages, returned to his family in Louisville.  His brother urged him to meet with Indian Agent Rufus Putnum in Cincinnati.  There, Wells agreed to work with Putnum to urge the Natives to agree to treaty terms in return for freeing the hostages.  Putnum then hired Wells to spy on various Native counsel in 1793 and report Native plans to the Americans.  Wells thus became a double agent, and remained one the rest of his career.  He had by this time married Little Turtle's daughter, Wanagapeth (Sweet Breeze) and had four children by her.  Their three daughters married White men and his son would follow in David Moniac's footsteps at West Point.  As Wells attempted to work with the Natives behind the scenes to put an end to the Northwest Indian War (1785-1795, he was thwarted at every turn by British Agents, Alexander McKee and Simon Girty, a personal nemesis.  Wells was able to bring Wayne warning that he was facing a force of over 1500 warriors ready to attack Wayne's Legion of the United States.

Wells was given a captain's rank and become the leader of a group of scouts and spies who worked directly under Anthony Wayne's direction as scouts, spies, interpreters or whatever else needed doing.  He led Wayne's forces to the battleground of the Wabash and pointed out to him where Natives had buried the cannon left behind.  Although he was wounded in the lead-up to Fallen Timbers in 1794, he was able to give Wayne advice that helped Wayne win that battle.  Later, Wells was one of the main interpreters at the negotiations leading up to the Treaty of Greenville of 1795.  As he urged his father-in-law Little Turtle to sign the treaty, did Little Turtle know that his daughter's husband was playing a double role?  Most likely not, as Little Turtle was adamant that Wells should be the Indian Agent appointed to the Ohio Tribes. 

As Indian Agent, Wells escorted delegations of Native leaders to Philadelphia and later Washington.  He also worked to urge Natives to sign treaties with the government, then urged them quietly to back away from what they'd signed.  Like Little Turtle, he believed that the Quakers could teach the Natives better methods of farming, but he did not push other aspects of Jefferson's civilization program for Native Americans.   As Tecumseh's movement gained grounded, both sides became suspicious of Wells, who negotiated his last treaty, the Treaty of Fort Wayne, in 1809.  As the incoming Madison Administration began investigating Wells and Little Turtle on allegations of corruption, Tecumseh was also spreading mistrust of the Agent.  Wells was fired in 1809, though he continued to work unofficial as an interpreter and tried to warn the Madison Administration of the gravity of Tecumseh's movement. 

Wells
would spend the rest of his life trying to get his job back.  Fortunately, he did not have long on this earth.  In 1812 he became aware of that Potawatomi supporting the British and Tecumseh were going to attack Fort Dearborn in present-day Chicago.  He rode with a delegation of peaceful Potawatomi, among them Black Partridge, to try to warn Captain Nathan Heald, commandant of the Fort and married to William's niece, Rebekah.  Believing that it was safe to march the garrison out, on August 15, 1812, Heald led a force of regulars, militia, women and children out of Fort Dearborn, where they were ambushed by the Potawatomi in the Battle of Fort Dearborn.  Wells died trying to protect women and children.  Most likely, family, his own or anyone else's, had been his motive all along.